Material Culture Paper

Grandma asked to read this, so hear it is. If anyone else feels like reading an academic paper, go for it. But be warned....



Buddhist Ancestral Worship: The Tie between Buddhism and Megalithic Ancestry Worship

Religion is a means of giving hope to people living in an imperfect and impermanent world. Life is full of struggle and pain, which is then met with the permanence of death and loss of loved ones. During the megalithic period of ancient Sri Lanka, people formed their own type of religion to cope with the pains of life and death: ancestry worship and veneration. Centuries later, with the arrival of Buddhism, the people of Sri Lanka adapted their veneration of ancestors to fit the ideals of Buddhism, by use of the stupa as a shrine to venerate the ultimate ancestor: Buddha.
The early Iron Age is contained within about 10c BC to 4c BC, followed by the introduction of Buddhism in 3c BC. Within the context of the Iron Age is the Megalithic Period, known for its use of large stones and small tools. The Megalithic period is dated between 1000BC and 200BC. There is varying evidence of the Megalithic culture in both Sri Lanka and India, but the most significant site in Sri Lanka used as a focus on burial practices and rituals is Ibbankatuwa. This megalithic burial site, located in close proximity to Dambulla, is Radio metric dated from about 600 to 400 BC, and is one of the few preserved megalithic burial sites in the country. There are a total of 42 burial sites, with the most preserved concentrated in a 15 X 15 meter area. Many more are believed to have existed in and around the area, but many have been destroyed or built over by settlers in the region. In some cases, these sites can be found in front yards of people’s homes, and many of the more manageable rocks once used to mark graves have now been used to build houses. Not much is known about the people buried within the sites at Ibbankatuwa. There has been a settlement excavated near the burial grounds, but it is unclear whether the remains belong to the settlement or traders within the region. Although clues to their identities were not left, the people who built these megalithic sites left evidence of their culture and religious beliefs within the burial sites and architecture.
Within the Sri Lankan and Indian region, there are several types of burial sites, including the dolmen, the rock circle, the urn burial, and the cist burial. The Ibbankatuwa site illustrates the urn burial and cist burial, complete with swastika shaped containment (cist) where the urns were placed. The large megalithic stones were placed in a swastika pattern to prevent collapse and to mark the site in memoriam. Within the rectangular shape created by these stones, urns and other offering pots were found. The urns and various pots contained corporeal relics and other goods of importance to either the deceased or the family of the deceased. According to Feschrift, “The grave good ranges from a variety of pottery to iron implements, beads, chank and food etc., which were either offered to the deceased or deposited for their use in the other world”(145). Due to the evidence found within these pots, archeologists are able to infer a belief in the afterlife and ancestral veneration through offerings. Tools found within the pots suggest either disposal of the tools with the body to symbolize ownership or the need for such tools in the afterlife. The final stone placed on the burial site was the capstone, place on top of the swastika, and was often labeled with a symbol marking the family crest of the deceased. This also symbolizes the importance of lineage and ancestry within the culture. Similar to contemporary traditional Buddhist rituals, evidence of offering pots could suggest multiple offerings following death, either to appease the spirit or to help the spirit in the afterlife. This prolonging of the mourning process suggests that “the spirit of the dead was kept alive within the community which in turn gave rise to ancestor worship. It is stated that, belief in a surviving soul is not the cause but the effect of the rites associate with this cult” (Festschrift 145). Similar to every major religion, the belief in an afterlife, or continuation after death, is necessary and central to ancestral worship and veneration. To represent this within their culture, the people belonging to these megalithic burial sites expressed the need to offer goods to the deceased and keep them alive in thought. This, in turn, creates the idea of an ever living soul, which begins a never ending cycle of veneration of the ancestors as living souls. In later times, this will be an attribute of the Buddhist faith.
The other types of megalithic burials found in the area are similar in nature to Ibbankatuwa, but are different architecturally. The dolmen type burial site is two or three stones placed vertically to create a sort of wall structure. A larger rock is placed on top to create a type of roof. The dolman is also described as a type of table-like structure. Inside of this structure, many of the same pots and artifacts can be found that were found at Ibbankatuwa, including beads, pottery, and corporeal remains. Another important type of megalithic burial is the pit circle, found in India. This is important for comparative purposes to the burials found at Ibbankatuwa because, although the architectural attributes are very different, each conveys a symbolic message. The pit circle consists of a ring of rocks which form a circle around a pit (or in some cases a raised platform). In the center, the corporeal relics and other offering pots are placed. The purpose of the ring is similar to the swastika form at Ibbankatuwa, as it is used to commemorate the sacred space, and contains the relics. The ring or never ending circle can also symbolize the continuation of life, and possibly the early ideas of rebirth. Some examples of these different types of burials have been found at Heggadelhalli, in Southern India. The site, located in the Kodagu Region, is home to over 20 burial sites, with many other sites in further regions. Some of these sites are very simple – a small porthole with a capstone covering, containing a few small pots – and others are as large and elaborate as those found in Ibbankatuwa. (Heggadelhalli)
The various megalithic burial practices continued throughout the early Iron Age and through the introduction of Buddhism into Sri Lankan culture, in 3c BC. Soon, however, Buddhism spread throughout the country and those who once worshiped their ancestors faced a dilemma: if Buddha himself was not a God to be venerated, and ancestors were no longer able to be worshiped under this new religion, what was to happen to their worshiping practices? The answer came in the form of the Stupa. The Pali term for stupa, or monuments of the sort, is caitya. Similarly in root, “cetiya is a North Indian word used for funerary monuments, but it also has a wider meaning to include stupas, viharas, trees, buildings, and other “objects of veneration” (Festschrift 145). Both terms (caitya and cetiya) are used to describe both burial monuments and Buddhist stupas, suggesting that there is a link in origin between the stupa and pre-Buddhist burial monuments. This idea, it seems, is not a far stretch, as many of the original burial monuments were covered with stupas:
In South India too, dolmenoid cists were conveniently transformed into local cult shrines in the post-megalithic period. Longhurst in fact saw the structural origins of the South Indian Hindu temple in such Early Iron Age stone monuments. (Festschrift 147)
Instead of destroying the ancient monuments of the ancestors, the people built over them or often used some of the same structure to add to the new Buddhist monument. This not only made it an easier transition of religion for the people, but it added a touch of ancestral worship to the stupa. Whatever form of veneration was once given to the megalithic site was now given to the stupa, with Buddha as the soul within. This ancestral worship eventually seeped through the foundations and became a cornerstone for stupa veneration.
In fact, even the Buddha himself had suggested such stupas, or monuments, be erected for certain people who held qualities of ‘Great Men’. He suggested that the monuments “contain their corporeal relics and articles of use. These monuments were to be located near highways and where roads met and were to be garlanded, decorated with flowers and perfumed” (Festschrift 146). Buddha, however, did not offer his name to the list. Rather, following his death, stupas were built in his honor to commemorate his life and teachings. His instructions were followed, and his corporeal relics were placed within the stupa in commemoration. Ritual decorating and venerating takes place based on the lunar calendar and more attention is paid to commemorate special days within Buddha’s life. Interestingly enough, most stupas today (if they are not in ruins) are still used to venerate the Buddha. They are considered “living sites” and people still bring offerings to the Buddha. Lily De Silva explains, “offerings are of various kinds, viz: - flowers, oil-lamps, incense, food, drinks and requisites of the monks. After making these offerings, a devotee expresses a wish” (De Silva 85). Similarly, during the early Iron Age, offerings were given to the ancestor, both to venerate the deceased and to gain help for the living. A wish expressed to the Buddha parallels a desire expressed to an ancestor in the same manner of ritual giving. Buddhism also ties the two traditions together giving “people a closer link to past and present: you could make donations on behalf of dead relatives, making it ‘possible for them to perceive the world beyond in more concrete terms which in turn made the links with the departed more real” (Festschrift 148).
The Stupa, as a living site, parallels the megalithic burials, because it symbolizes the presence of the ancestor and keeps the spirit of the dead alive within its walls. The shape of the stupa is very analogous to megalithic burials, if not only similar in architecture but also in symbolism. First, let us begin with what Mircea Eliade termed the axis mundi. According to Eliade, the axis mundi is the center of the universe and the origin of the sacred. This idea can be expressed in several intellectual ideas and symbols, including the center of a circle, the center of the earth, etc. The main symbolic meaning is one of unity and origin of existence. As Snodgrass explains, “the center is where all things come from and where all things return” (Snodgrass 22). The main architectural feature of the stupa, the circular mound, encompasses this symbolism. The stupa symbolizes the Buddha, whose corporeal relics are contained at the center of the stupa. Therefore, the Buddha is the symbol of life, impermanence, and the center of existence for the faith. The megalithic burials follow the same idea of the circle, centering the ancestor in the place now given to the Buddha. The pit circle is a obvious example of this circular symbolism, as the pots containing the corporeal remains are placed within the center of the circle, just as the relics of Buddha are placed in the center of the stupa (although they are raised). At first glance, the burial sites found at Ibbankatuwa do not seem to fit this notion of circular symbolism, but upon closer examination, one can see that the swastika pattern – an early symbol of the wheel of life – encompasses the same idea, only as a more complex symbol.
Snodgrass goes on to explain that “the plan of the stupa is the circle of earth and space squared by the fourfold-divided cycles of time” (Snodgrass 101). The geometric patterns of the burial sites, again, follow the same pattern. This can be seen at the Ibbankatuwa site, where the four corners of the swastika pattern form the four dived cycles of time. The remaining parts of the stupa greatly resemble the ancient burial practices. The dome of the stupa represents the burial jars used to place the corporeal remains and other offerings in. The square which sits atop the dome, called the casket, has several ties to ancient burials, the most obvious being its name. Additionally, the casket is in the shape of the swastika pattern used to create the megalithic memorials. Moreover, the casket holds the remains of the Buddha, centering them in the middle of the dome, or circle. Both the stupa and the burial sites are used to venerate, protect, and illustrate the greatness of the ancestor, whether it is Buddha or a simple farmer.
Both the stupa and the megalithic burial sites were used for similar ritual purposes as well. Festschrift explains how the architectural features are used in rituals for both the stupa and the burial site:
The clockwise and anti-clockwise cist slabs taking the form of the revolving swastika is more or less repeated in the low tumulus and the enclosure stone in certain burials is similar to the pradaksinapatha (circumambulatory path) of the Buddhist stupa (Festschrift 147).
The pattern of the swastika is then used as a ritual path around the stupa for veneration of the stupa and Buddha. People circumambulate as well as bring offertory gifts on certain festival days, especially Poya days and important days of the Buddha’s life. Similarly, people of the megalithic period would visit the memorial site of their ancestors, bringing with them offertory gifts for the dead. These visits may have come on certain days, similar to present day Buddhist rituals of death, and they would have been repeated. Another significant similarity is the type of dress expected of the people venerating both the stupa and cemetery memorials. Although it is unknown what type of clothing the people of the megalithic period wore when visiting the sites, it is fair to say that there is still a connection between present day burial rituals and the veneration of the stupa. White and other sober colors are expected to be worn by both sexes, as well as conservative styles. The appropriation of dress is out of respect of the ancestor (or in the case of the stupa, Buddha as ancestor).
Now to face the question, if Buddhists venerate Buddha as ancestor worshippers once venerated their dead, is Buddha placed in the seat of a God? The answer to this is left up to the individual to decide. To many Buddhists, Buddha is treated as a God, in need of veneration, adoration, and appeasement. He denotes pin on those who offer gifts and pray to him for wishes, and is an ever present spirit. To other Buddhists, Buddha is a symbolic representation of the philosophy of Buddhism and a guide to the middle path. He is an inspiration to those who aspire to Buddhahood, and veneration is offered as a means to ponder impermanence. Lily De Silva explains that, although both extremes above are accurate, the average vision of Buddha takes a third path:
But for the average Buddhist, the Buddha is all of the above and much more; in him they find the fulfillment of the human need to worship; in him they find the person to be loyal to; in him they find the ultimate authority higher than any human being, and when they bow in worship before the Buddha image they give expression to the sense of awe and wonder before the Ultimate Mystery of life (De Silva78).
Buddha represents nirvana – freedom from death, the Ultimate Mystery of life. Like the ancestors of old, the afterlife has been shown to Buddha and he is enlightened. The veneration of those who are enlightened, who know the life after ours, is done so that we may discover the truth behind the mystery. We all have a human curiosity to know the beyond: to control and mediate our path of life ahead of us. We mediate through these ancestors – bargaining with prayer and veneration and the hope to find what is invisible to us.
Pali verse states: “The stupa is the Buddha, and the Buddha is the stupa” (Snodgrass 362). There is no mention of the stupa being a representation of pre-Buddhist burial sites – this is an interpretation, based on observation, textual study, and archeological similarities. However, interpretation is not to say that there is no merit in this theory. Edirisinghe explains that all monuments “bear an intended message – personal, social, economic, profession or any other – which we may interpret in our own way” (Edirisinghe 9). These artifacts, ideas, and relics are left up to interpretation so that we may, using our own intellect, unearth the truth.